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The rise of open-source culture in the 20th century resulted from a growing tension between creative practices that involve require access to content that is often copyrighted , and restrictive intellectual property laws and policies governing access to copyrighted content.
The two main ways in which intellectual property laws became more restrictive in the 20th century were extensions to the term of copyright particularly in the United States and penalties, such as those articulated in the Digital Millennium Copyright Act DMCA , placed on attempts to circumvent anti-piracy technologies. Although artistic appropriation is often permitted under fair-use doctrines, the complexity and ambiguity of these doctrines creates an atmosphere of uncertainty among cultural practitioners.
Also, the protective actions of copyright owners create what some call a " chilling effect " among cultural practitioners. The idea of an "open-source" culture runs parallel to " Free Culture ," but is substantively different.
Free culture is a term derived from the free software movement , and in contrast to that vision of culture, proponents of open-source culture OSC maintain that some intellectual property law needs to exist to protect cultural producers. Yet they propose a more nuanced position than corporations have traditionally sought.
Instead of seeing intellectual property law as an expression of instrumental rules intended to uphold either natural rights or desirable outcomes, an argument for OSC takes into account diverse goods as in "the Good life" and ends. Sites such as ccMixter offer up free web space for anyone willing to license their work under a Creative Commons license. The resulting cultural product is then available to download free generally accessible to anyone with an Internet connection.
Through various technologies such as peer-to-peer networks and blogs , cultural producers can take advantage of vast social networks to distribute their products. As opposed to traditional media distribution, redistributing digital media on the Internet can be virtually costless.
Irish philosopher Richard Kearney has used the term "open-source Hinduism " to refer to the way historical figures such as Mohandas Gandhi and Swami Vivekananda worked upon this ancient tradition. Open-source journalism formerly referred to the standard journalistic techniques of news gathering and fact checking, reflecting open-source intelligence , a similar term used in military intelligence circles.
Now, open-source journalism commonly refers to forms of innovative publishing of online journalism , rather than the sourcing of news stories by a professional journalist. In the 25 December issue of TIME magazine this is referred to as user created content and listed alongside more traditional open-source projects such as OpenSolaris and Linux. Weblogs , or blogs, are another significant platform for open-source culture. Blogs consist of periodic, reverse chronologically ordered posts, using a technology that makes webpages easily updatable with no understanding of design, code, or file transfer required.
While corporations, political campaigns and other formal institutions have begun using these tools to distribute information, many blogs are used by individuals for personal expression, political organizing, and socializing.
Some, such as LiveJournal or WordPress , utilize open-source software that is open to the public and can be modified by users to fit their own tastes. Whether the code is open or not, this format represents a nimble tool for people to borrow and re-present culture; whereas traditional websites made the illegal reproduction of culture difficult to regulate, the mutability of blogs makes "open sourcing" even more uncontrollable since it allows a larger portion of the population to replicate material more quickly in the public sphere.
Messageboards are another platform for open-source culture. Messageboards also known as discussion boards or forums , are places online where people with similar interests can congregate and post messages for the community to read and respond to.
Messageboards sometimes have moderators who enforce community standards of etiquette such as banning spammers. Other common board features are private messages where users can send messages to one another as well as chat a way to have a real time conversation online and image uploading. Some messageboards use phpBB , which is a free open-source package. Where blogs are more about individual expression and tend to revolve around their authors, messageboards are about creating a conversation amongst its users where information can be shared freely and quickly.
Messageboards are a way to remove intermediaries from everyday life—for instance, instead of relying on commercials and other forms of advertising, one can ask other users for frank reviews of a product, movie or CD. By removing the cultural middlemen, messageboards help speed the flow of information and exchange of ideas. OpenDocument is an open document file format for saving and exchanging editable office documents such as text documents including memos, reports, and books , spreadsheets , charts, and presentations.
Organizations and individuals that store their data in an open format such as OpenDocument avoid being locked into a single software vendor, leaving them free to switch software if their current vendor goes out of business, raises their prices, changes their software, or changes their licensing terms to something less favorable.
Open-source movie production is either an open call system in which a changing crew and cast collaborate in movie production, a system in which the result is made available for re-use by others or in which exclusively open-source products are used in the production. The movie Elephants Dream is said to be the "world's first open movie", [85] created entirely using open-source technology.
An open-source documentary film has a production process allowing the open contributions of archival material footage , and other filmic elements, both in unedited and edited form, similar to crowdsourcing. By doing so, on-line contributors become part of the process of creating the film, helping to influence the editorial and visual material to be used in the documentary, as well as its thematic development.
The first open-source documentary film is the non-profit WBCN and the American Revolution , which went into development in , and will examine the role media played in the cultural, social and political changes from to through the story of radio station WBCN-FM in Boston.
Open Source Cinema is a website to create Basement Tapes, a feature documentary about copyright in the digital age, co-produced by the National Film Board of Canada. It can also refer to a method of film-making where the process of creation is 'open' i. Open-IPTV uses the Internet or other means to pool efforts and resources together to create an online community that all contributes to a show.
Within the academic community, there is discussion about expanding what could be called the "intellectual commons" analogous to the Creative Commons. Open-source curricula are instructional resources whose digital source can be freely used, distributed and modified. Another strand to the academic community is in the area of research. Many funded research projects produce software as part of their work.
Due to the benefits of sharing software openly in scientific endeavours, [91] there is an increasing interest in making the outputs of research projects available under an open-source license.
JISC also funds a development service called OSS Watch which acts as an advisory service for higher and further education institutions wishing to use, contribute to and develop open-source software. The principle of sharing pre-dates the open-source movement; for example, the free sharing of information has been institutionalized in the scientific enterprise since at least the 19th century.
Open-source principles have always been part of the scientific community. The sociologist Robert K. Merton described the four basic elements of the community—universalism an international perspective , communalism sharing information , objectivity removing one's personal views from the scientific inquiry and organized skepticism requirements of proof and review that describe the idealised scientific community.
These principles are, in part, complemented by US law's focus on protecting expression and method but not the ideas themselves. There is also a tradition of publishing research results to the scientific community instead of keeping all such knowledge proprietary. One of the recent initiatives in scientific publishing has been open access —the idea that research should be published in such a way that it is free and available to the public.
There are currently many open access journals where the information is available free online, however most journals do charge a fee either to users or libraries for access. The Budapest Open Access Initiative is an international effort with the goal of making all research articles available free on the Internet.
This policy would provide a free, searchable resource of NIH-funded results to the public and with other international repositories six months after its initial publication. The NIH's move is an important one because there is significant amount of public funding in scientific research. Many of the questions have yet to be answered—the balancing of profit vs. Benjamin Franklin was an early contributor eventually donating all his inventions including the Franklin stove , bifocals , and the lightning rod to the public domain.
New NGO communities are starting to use the open-source technology as a tool. The Eclipse platform is openly presenting itself as an Open innovation network. Copyright protection is used in the performing arts and even in athletic activities. Some groups have attempted to remove copyright from such practices.
This opera was originally composed and published in by Russian label MC Entertainment as a commercial product, but then the author changed its status to free. In his blog [98] he said that he decided to open raw files including wav, midi and other used formats to the public in order to support worldwide pirate actions against SOPA and PIPA.
Several Internet resources [99] [] [] [] called "" the first open-source musical opera in history. The following are events and applications that have been developed via the open source community , and echo the ideologies of the open source movement. Open Education Consortium — an organization composed of various colleges that support open source and share some of their material online. This organization, headed by Massachusetts Institute of Technology , was established to aid in the exchange of open source educational materials.
Wikipedia — user-generated online encyclopedia with sister projects in academic areas, such as Wikiversity — a community dedicated to the creation and exchange of learning materials [] [ failed verification ]. Project Gutenberg — prior to the existence of Google Scholar Beta, this was the first supplier of electronic books and the very first free library project [] [ failed verification ]. Synthetic Biology - This new technology is potentially important because it promises to enable cheap, lifesaving new drugs as well as helping to yield biofuels that may help to solve our energy problem.
Although synthetic biology has not yet come out of its "lab" stage, it has potential to become industrialized in the near future. In order to industrialize open source science, there are some scientists who are trying to build their own brand of it. The open-access movement is a movement that is similar in ideology to the open source movement.
Members of this movement maintain that academic material should be readily available to provide help with "future research, assist in teaching and aid in academic purposes. The free-culture movement is a movement that seeks to achieve a culture that engages in collective freedom via freedom of expression, free public access to knowledge and information, full demonstration of creativity and innovation in various arenas and promotion of citizen liberties.
Creative Commons is an organization that "develops, supports, and stewards legal and technical infrastructure that maximizes digital creativity, sharing, and innovation. Creative Commons provides an infrastructure through a set of copyright licenses and tools that creates a better balance within the realm of "all rights reserved" properties. The Zeitgeist Movement is an international social movement that advocates a transition into a sustainable "resource-based economy" based on collaboration in which monetary incentives are replaced by commons-based ones with everyone having access to everything from code to products as in "open source everything".
P2P Foundation is an "international organization focused on studying, researching, documenting and promoting peer to peer practices in a very broad sense". Its objectives incorporate those of the open source movement, whose principles are integrated in a larger socio-economic model.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Free access to software, information and materials as a concept. For a common use, see Open-source software , and for other uses, see Open source disambiguation.
Not to be confused with Open access. Main article: History of free and open-source software. Main article: Open-source economics. Further information: Business models for open-source software. Main article: Open-source license. Main article: Free and open-source software. Further information: Open research.
Main article: Open-source robotics. Main article: Open-source software. Further information: Open-source software movement. Main article: Open-source religion. Free and open-source software portal. Meta has related information at: Open-source. Scholia has a topic profile for Open source. Wikispecies has information related to Open-source. Open Source Org. Archived from the original on 11 June Retrieved 22 January Open source doesn't just mean access to the source code.
Diffingo Solutions Inc. Archived from the original on 28 October Open source software differers from other software because it has a less restrictive license agreement: Instead of using a restrictive license that prevents you from modifying the program or sharing it with friends for example, sharing and modifying open source software is encouraged.
Anyone who wishes to do so may distribute, modify or even create derivative works based on that source code! Organization Science. ISSN S2CID SSRN The cathedral and the bazaar: musings on Linux and Open Source by an accidental revolutionary. ISBN Environment, Development and Sustainability. ISSN X. Business Standard India — via Business Standard. June Research Policy. In Kotze, P. ACM Press. CiteSeerX The Car Culture. MIT Press. IBM and the U. The Hyperlogos.
Archived from the original on 15 March Stanford, CA: Stanford University: 34— The problem with it is twofold. Second, the term makes a lot of corporate types nervous. Retrieved 10 February Public-domain software is written by microcomputer hobbyists also known as "hackers" many of whom are professional programmers in their work life. Open Source Initiative. Archived from the original on 1 October Retrieved 23 August Free Software Foundation. Open Source: A Multidisciplinary Approach. Imperial College Press.
Retrieved 25 October Linux Gazette. Archived from the original on 29 December Retrieved 7 February Archived from the original on 13 March Retrieved 23 December The economics and management of intellectual property : towards intellectual capitalism. Cheltenham, UK: E. Creative Commons. Archived from the original on 6 January Organization Science , 19 2 , doi : Knowledge Collaboration in Online Communities. Organization Science , 22 5 , , doi : March IEEE Software.
Archived from the original PDF on 8 October Retrieved 22 November The International Symposium on Open Collaboration. Archived from the original on 12 March Retrieved 26 March Open collaboration is collaboration that is egalitarian everyone can join, no principled or artificial barriers to participation exist , meritocratic decisions and status are merit-based rather than imposed and self-organizing processes adapt to people rather than people adapt to pre-defined processes.
The Success of Open Source. Harvard University Press. Retrieved 25 April Karl Michael Best Practices for commercial use of open source software. Norderstedt, Germany: Books on Demand. Archived from the original on 1 November Sustainability: The Journal of Record. Archived from the original on 28 April OSS Watch. Optimize for System Performance 1.
Language identifier used by the operating system. Each language has a unique language identifier LANGID , a bit value that consists of a primary language identifier and a secondary language identifier. Name of the operating system manufacturer.
For Windows-based systems, this value is "Microsoft Corporation". Maximum number of process contexts the operating system can support. If there is no fixed maximum, the value should be 0 zero. On systems that have a fixed maximum, this object can help diagnose failures that occur when the maximum is reached—if unknown, enter 0xFFFFFFFF. Maximum number, in kilobytes, of memory that can be allocated to a process. For operating systems with no virtual memory, typically this value is equal to the total amount of physical memory minus the memory used by the BIOS and the operating system.
For some operating systems, this value may be infinity, in which case 0 zero should be entered. In other cases, this value could be a constant, for example, 2G or 4G. For example, "en-us". MUI Pack languages are resource files that can be installed on the English version of the operating system. When an MUI Pack is installed, you can can change the user interface language to one of 33 supported languages.
Number of user licenses for the operating system. If unlimited, enter 0 zero. If unknown, enter Architecture of the operating system, as opposed to the processor. Language version of the operating system installed. The following list lists the possible values. Example: 0x German, Switzerland. Installed and licensed system product additions to the operating system.
The following list lists possible values. Microsoft Small Business Server was once installed, but may have been upgraded to another version of Windows. OtherTypeDescription ". Unknown 0. Other 1. Digital Unix 6. OpenVMS 7. JavaVM WIN3x NetWare Reliant UNIX SCO UnixWare SCO OpenServer Sequent Solaris SunOS TandemNSK TandemNT Interactive UNIX FreeBSD NetBSD GNU Hurd MACH Kernel Inferno IxWorks VxWorks NextStep PalmPilot Rhapsody Windows Dedicated OSType ".
If True , the physical address extensions PAE are enabled by the operating system running on Intel processors. PAE allows applications to address more than 4 GB of physical memory. When PAE is enabled, the operating system uses three-level linear address translation rather than two-level.
Providing more physical memory to an application reduces the need to swap memory to the page file and increases performance. Specifies whether the operating system booted from an external USB device. If true, the operating system has detected it is booting on a supported locally connected storage device. The QuantumLength property defines the number of clock ticks per quantum. A quantum is a unit of execution time that the scheduler is allowed to give to an application before switching to other applications.
When a thread runs one quantum, the kernel preempts it and moves it to the end of a queue for applications with equal priorities. The actual length of a thread's quantum varies across different Windows platforms.
The QuantumType property specifies either fixed or variable length quantums. Windows defaults to variable length quantums where the foreground application has a longer quantum than the background applications. Windows Server defaults to fixed-length quantums. A quantum is a unit of execution time that the scheduler is allowed to give to an application before switching to another application.
Major version number of the service pack installed on the computer system. If no service pack has been installed, the value is 0 zero. Minor version number of the service pack installed on the computer system. Total number of kilobytes that can be stored in the operating system paging files—0 zero indicates that there are no paging files.
Be aware that this number does not represent the actual physical size of the paging file on disk. Current status of the object. Various operational and nonoperational statuses can be defined.
Nonoperational statuses include: "Error", "Starting", "Stopping", and "Service". The Service status applies to administrative work, such as mirror-resilvering of a disk, reload of a user permissions list, or other administrative work.
Not all such work is online, but the managed element is neither "OK" nor in one of the other states.
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